Impact of Glass Ceiling on Women Career Development: Modedrating Role of Age and Legal Factors
Author(s)
Download Full PDF Pages: 22-30 | Views: 1307 | Downloads: 410 | DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.3484521
Volume 7 - September 2018 (09)
Abstract
Glass ceiling and gender discrimination are considered as biggest barriers in the professional growth of women; holding them back from occupying executive positions in the corporate world. The present research aims to analyze the prevailing effect of glass ceiling factors on women career development by examining the moderating role of age and legal factors from Pakistani women’s perspective within the country. The statistical cosmos of the study consisted of 300 executive level females from different educational and health institutions through simple random sampling techniques. The study was completed with an empirical survey which was thoroughly conducted through questionnaires distributed in public and private organizations in Pakistan. The findings indicated to a significant degree the acceptance of five out of six hypotheses while one hypothesis was not proven to be true. The findings reveal that individual, organizational and family factors have a significant impact on the career development of women whereas cultural factors are not seen to have any significant impact on it. Moreover, age and legal factors moderate the relationship of cultural and organizational factors on women career development. The research is limited to specific industries and country together with a limited number of moderators providing the room for future researchers.
Keywords
Glass Ceiling, Women Career Development, Age, Individual Factors, Organizational Factors, Family Role
References
i. Adams, S.M., Gupta, A., & Leeth, J.D. (2009). Are female executives over represented in precarious leadership positions? British Journal of Management, 20, 1-12
ii. Afza, S., & Newaz, M. (2008). Factors determining the presence of GC and influencing women career advancement in Bangladesh. BBRAC UNIVERSITY Journal, 5(1), 85-92
iii. Aycan, Z. (2004). Key success factors of women in management in Turkey. Journal of applied psychology, 53 (3), 453-477.
iv. Bartol, K. M., Martin, D.C., & Kromkowski, J. A. (2003). Leadership and the glass ceiling: gender and ethnic group influences on leader behaviors at middle and executive managerial levels. Journal of leadership & Organizational Studies, 9(3), 8-20.
v. Berger, J., Rosenholtz, S. J., & Zelditch, M. J. (1980). Status organizing processes. Annual review of Sociology, 6, 479-508.
vi. Bierema, L. L. (1998). A synthesis of women career development issues. New Directions for Adults and Continuing Education, 80, 95-103.
vii. Bombuwela, P. M., & Chamaru, D. (2013). Effects of Glass Ceiling on Women Career Development in Private Sector Organizations- Case of Sri Lanka. Journal of competitiveness, 5(2), 3-19.
viii. Boushey, H. (2008). Opting out? The effect of children on women’s employment in the United States. Feminist Economics, 14, 1-36.
ix. Carli, L. L., & Eagly, A. H. (2001). Sex, Hierarchy, and leadership: an introduction. Journal of social issues, 57(4), 629-636.
x. Cassell. C., & Walsh, S. (1994, September). Falling back or fitting in: cultural barriers to women’s progression in management. Paper presented to British Academy of Management Conference.
xi. Catalyst (1990). Women in corporate management: Results of Catalyst survey. New York: Catalyst
xii. Catalyst (1998). 1998 Catalyst census of women corporate officers and top earners. New York: Catalyst
xiii. Catalyst (2007). Catalyst Census of Women Corporate Officers and Top Earners of the FP500 in Canada. Retrieved from http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/2006-catalyst-census-women-corporate-officers-and-top-earners-fp500-canada
xiv. Dimovski, V., Skerlavaj, M., & Man, M. & Mork, K. (2010). Is There a ‘Glass Ceiling’ for Female Managers in Singapore Organizations? Management, 5(4), 307-329.
xv. Dorfman, P. W., Haanges, P. J., & Brodbeck, F. C. (2004). Leadership and cultural variation: Identification of culturally endorsed leadership profiles. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
xvi. Eagly, A. H. & Carli, L. L. (2003). The female leadership advantage: An evaluation of the evidence. The Leadership Quarterly, 14, 807-834
xvii. Eagly, A. H. & Carli, L. L. (2007). Through the Labyrinth: The Truth About How Women Become Leader. Boston: Harvard Business School.
xviii. Eagly, A. H., & Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C. (2001). The leadership styles of women and men. Journal of Social issues, 57, 781-797.
xix. Fassinger, R. E. (2008). Workplace diversity and public policy: challenges and opportunities for psychology. American Psychologist, 63(4), 252-268.
xx. Fisher, A. B. (1992). When Will Women Get to the Top? Fortune, 56, 44-49.
xxi. Flanders, M. L. (1994). Breakthrough: The Career Woman’s Guide to Shattering the Glass Ceiling. London: Paul Chapman.
xxii. Gallos, J. (1989). Exploring women’s development: Implications for career theory, practice and research. In Arthur, M. B., Hall, D. T., & Lawrence, B. S. (Eds.). Handbook of career theory, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
xxiii. Greenhaus, J. H., Callanan, G. A., & Godshalk, V. M. (2000). Career Management (3rd ed). Fort Worth: Dryden Press.
xxiv. Gregg, P., & Machin, S. (1993). Is the Glass Ceiling Cracking? London National Institute for Economic Research, 50.
xxv. Hewlett, S. A. (2002). Executive women and the myth of having it all. Harvard Business Review, 80(4), 66-73.
xxvi. House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P., & Gupta, V. (2004). Culture, Leadership and Organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 Societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
xxvii. ILO (1998, June). Gender Issues in Micro-Enterprise Development: A Briefing Note. The International Small Enterprise Programme (ISEP).
xxviii. Inman, L. P. (1998). Women’s career development at the glass ceiling. New directions for adults and continuing education, 35-42.
xxix. Jabbar, A., Imran, A. (2013). Perception of Glass Ceiling in Educational Institution: An evidence from Pakistan. World Applied Sciences, 23(5), 628-634.
xxx. Jogulu, U., & Wood, G. (2011). Women Managers’ Career Progression: An Asia Pacific Perspective. Gender in Management: An international Journal, 26(8), 590-603.
xxxi. Kanter, R. M. (1997). Men and women of the corporation. New York: Basic Books.
xxxii. Keeble, D., & Walker, S. (1994). New Firms, Small Firms and Dead Firms: Spatial patterns and determinants in the United Kingdom. Religious Studies, 28(4).
xxxiii. Kirchmeyer, C. (2002). Gender differences in managerial careers: yesterday, today and tomorrow. Journal of business ethics, 5-24.
xxxiv. Labor Force Survey (2013, August). Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.gov.pk/node/875
xxxv. Lockwood, N. (2004). The Glass Ceiling: Domestic and International Perspectives. Research Quarterly.
xxxvi. London, M., & Stumpf, S. A. (1982). Managing careers. Reading MA: Addison-Wesley.
xxxvii. Lyness, K. S., & Thompson, D. E. (2000). Climbing the corporate ladder: Do female executives follow the same route? Journal of Applies Psychology, 85(1), 86-101.
xxxviii. Mansor, N. (2005). Women in Business: Determinants for Venturing in Malaysians SMEs. Retrieved from www.tbs.ubbc/uj.ro/studia/articol 4-5-2005
xxxix. Mathur-Helm, B. (2006). Women and the glass ceiling in South African Banks: an illusion or reality? Women in Management Review, 21(4), 31-326.
xl. Maume, D. (2004). Is the glass ceiling a unique form of inequality? Evidence from a random effects model of managerial attainment. Work and Occupations, 31, 250-274.
xli. Mavin, S. (2001). Women’s career in theory and practice: time for change? Women in Management Review, 16(4), 183-192.
xlii. Minniti, M., & Arenius, P. (2003). Women in entrepreneurship: The Entrepreneurial advantage of the Nations. First Annual Global Entrepreneurship Symposium: United Nations Headquarters.
xliii. O’Neil, D. A., Hopkins, M. M., & Bilimoria, D. (2008). Women’s careers at the start of the 21st century: patterns and paradoxes. Journal of Business Ethics, 80, 727-743.
xliv. Phillips, S. D., & Imkoff, A. R. (1997). Women and career development. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 31-59.
xlv. Powell, D. A., & Butterfield, G. N. (1994). “Investigating the ‘Glass Ceiling’ Phenomenon: An Empirical Study of Actual Promotions to Top Management”. Academy of Management Journal, 37(1).
xlvi. Ronstadt, R. (1984). The Corridor Principle. Journal of Business Venturing, 3, 31-40.
xlvii. Rowley, C. (2013). What might influence female manager’s career success? London: Cass Business School.
xlviii. Schambaugh, R. (2008). It’s not a glass ceiling, it’s a sticky floor: free yourself from the hidden behaviors sabotaging your career success. New York, NY: McGraw Hill Professional.
xlix. Sharma, A., Sharma, S., & Kaushik, N. (2011). An exploratory study of glass ceiling in Indian education sector. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 8(1).
l. Smith, P., Caputi, P., & Crittenden, N. (2012). How are women’s glass ceiling beliefs related to career success? Career Development International, 17(5).
li. Stone, P. (2007). Opting out? Why women really quit careers head home {Unpublished master thesis}. University of California, Barkeley, CA.
lii. The World Bank (2014, October). Poverty overview. Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty/overview
liii. Vanhala, S. (2009). Women’s leadership in research and educational project. International Johtajura, 24.
liv. Weyer, B. (2007). Twenty years later: explaining the persistence of the glass ceiling for women leaders. Women in Management Review, 22(6), 482-496.
lv. Wirth, L. (2001). Breaking Through the Glass Ceiling. International Labor Office: Geneva.
lvi. Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2002). A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: implications for the origins of sex differences. Psychological Bulletin, 128(5), 699-727.
lvii. Zeng, Z. (2011). The myth of the glass ceiling: Evidence from a stock-flow analysis of authority attainment. Social science research, 40(2), 312-325.
Cite this Article: